INFOFACTSRESOURCES The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention Secondary Effects of Heavy Drinking on Campus by Daniel Ari Kapner While some may view college drinking as a "rite of passage" for students, the consequences of underage and high-risk drinking leave no room for doubt- excessive alcohol use is harmful, affecting both students and the institution as a whole. Not only do heavy drinkers negatively affect their own health and academic potential but also the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of their peers who abstain or drink moderately. The harm experienced by those students who are not heavy drinkers is referred to as "secondary effects." This Infofacts/Resources offers an overview of the secondary effects that result from heavy drinking on campus and in surrounding communities and outlines effective prevention approaches that many campuses are currently following to address the problem. Secondary Effects of Alcohol Use Students who abstain or are light or moderate drinkers frequently suffer from the behavior of other students who drink heavily. The majority of college and university students are not heavy drinkers, with 22.8 percent abstaining from all alcohol use.1 Nevertheless, more than three-quarters of all students living in residence halls, fraternities, or sororities report that they have experienced at least one secondary effect due to another student's drinking.2 These secondary effects range in nature from small annoyances that interfere with one's studies to criminal behavior and serious acts of violence. Following are prominent secondary effects experienced by those students who live on campus or in sorority or fraternity houses and who abstain or drink moderately:2 * 60.0 percent had study or sleep interrupted. * 47.6 percent had to take care of a drunken student. * 29.2 percent had been insulted or humiliated. * 19.5 percent of female respondents experienced an unwanted sexual advance. * 19.0 percent had a serious argument or quarrel. * 15.2 percent had property damaged. * 8.7 percent had been pushed, hit, or assaulted. * 1.0 percent of female respondents had been a victim of sexual assault or acquaintance rape. Impaired Driving A report by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges, cites several studies on the negative health consequences of students' drinking.3 One study estimates that more than 1,700 college students die every year from alcohol-related causes, with more than 1,300 of these deaths involving drinking and driving. Approximately 2.8 million students between the ages of 18 and 24 drove after drinking in 2001.4 There are no studies to indicate how many students die from automobile crashes caused by another student's driving under the influence, but stories of these tragic deaths make headlines every academic year. Sexual Assault and Interpersonal Violence The National College Women Sexual Victimization (NCWSV) survey found that 20-25 percent of college women are victims of an attempted or completed rape during their college careers. In 9 out of 10 cases, the victims know the perpetrators. According to the survey, 12.8 percent of completed rapes, 35.0 percent of attempted rapes, and 22.9 percent of threatened rapes take place during a date.5 The NIAAA report estimates that alcohol is involved in more than 97,000 cases of sexual assault every year, including acquaintance rape.4 In a study of students who had been victims of some type of sexual aggression while in college-from intimidation and illegal restraint to rape-the surveyed women reported that 68 percent of their male assailants had been drinking at the time of the attack.6 Another study found that on campuses with high levels of drinking, 19.5 percent of female students who were not heavy drinkers were confronted with unwanted alcohol-related sexual advances in the previous year.2 Alcohol is also associated with hazing, riots, and other forms of nonsexual violence on campus. The NIAAA report estimates that more than 969,000 four- year college students are hit or assaulted by drinking students in the United States every year.4 Several studies estimate that between 50 and 80 percent of violence on campus is alcohol-related.7 One study of residence halls found that 71 percent of violent acts directed toward resident advisers was alcohol- related.8 A huge burden for campuses has been student riots, usually taking place following sporting events or after new campus alcohol policies are created. 9-13 Riots pose challenges for campus administrators and law enforcement officers and can lead to unexpected economic burdens.14 A number of campus riots point to alcohol as a key contributing factor.10-15 Because alcohol is involved in various forms of violence on campus, alcohol control measures should be a major consideration when campuses design violence prevention programs. Community Consequences of Alcohol Use A 2002 study on the secondary effects of college drinking experienced by neighborhood residents found much evidence that college drinking affects their quality of life.16 The study of 4,661 individuals concluded that respondents living within one mile of a campus were much more likely to experience noise or disturbance, vandalism, public drunkenness, and vomit or public urination by students on their property than are people living more than one mile from a campus. The following table illustrates the secondary effects experienced by area residents in relation to their distance from a campus.16 Not surprisingly, the study found that neighborhoods closer to campus had a higher density of alcohol outlets than neighborhoods farther from campus, with 92.1 percent of respondents within one mile of a campus and 74.9 percent of those more than one mile away reporting the nearby presence of an alcohol outlet. Alcohol outlets were especially abundant near campuses with higher levels of heavy drinking on campus. The study concluded that a decrease in alcohol outlets near campuses might significantly lower the secondary effects experienced by individuals residing in those areas.16 Sidebar: Secondary Effects Experienced by Area Residents Secondary Effects and Distance from Campus Litter, more than 1 mile 72.8 % within 1 mile 79.3 % Noise or disturbance, more than 1 mile 53.4 % within 1 mile 70.8 % Vandalism, more than 1 mile 31.7 % within 1 mile 48.7 % People who are drunk, more than 1 mile 35.6 % within 1 mile 58.5 % Fighting or assault to others, more than 1 mile 17.8 % within 1 mile 28.5 % Vomit or public urination, more than 1 mile 10.5 % within 1 mile 32.2 % Automobile crash, more than 1 mile 40.2 % within 1 mile 46.1 % Four or more problems observed, more than 1 mile 30.8 % within 1 mile 53.2 % Using Information on Secondary Effects for Alcohol Prevention Publicizing information on secondary effects is useful for attracting public attention and developing support for policy change and stricter enforcement. The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) launched a major campaign on several campuses to encourage student advocacy on campus. CSPI used posters and flyers to remind students about unpleasant consequences of other students' drinking, with the aim of reinforcing negative attitudes against secondary effects, encouraging students to be vocal about their right to a safer campus, and enrolling student leaders in advocacy work to improve the social life on campus.17 Perhaps the most successful public health campaign in recent years is the antismoking effort, which has focused on the consequences of secondhand smoke (also known as environmental tobacco smoke). Similarly, alcohol prevention specialists can gain political momentum by focusing on the role of heavy-drinking students in negatively affecting the larger population of moderate-drinking and abstaining students. What Colleges Are Doing to Address Alcohol Problems Building off widespread concerns about secondary effects of alcohol use, institutions of higher education should continue to implement comprehensive alcohol prevention programs. Many campuses and communities are implementing new programs and policies that go beyond traditional educational programs-which have not proven to be effective in curbing high-risk drinking when used alone-to change the physical, social, legal, and economic environment on campus and in surrounding communities. Under the banner of environmental management, the U.S. Department of Education's Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention recommends the following key strategies:18 Promoting Alcohol- and Other Drug-Free Social, Recreational, and Extracurricular Options and Public Service * Sponsor alcohol- and other drug-free social and recreational options for students, such as a student center, coffeehouse, or other alcohol-free settings. Marketing efforts for these events must clearly outline the alcohol- and other drug-free guidelines for the activities. * Sponsor and publicize volunteer and community service opportunities for students. Creating a Social, Academic, and Residential Environment That Promotes Healthy Social Norms * Develop social norms marketing campaigns to address exaggerated misperceptions of alcohol and other drug use. * Develop programs targeted to male peer groups, such as fraternities and athletics teams. * Promote a healthy environment through the college admissions procedures. * Offer core classes in the academic schedule on Thursdays, Fridays, and possibly Saturdays. * Make available substance-free residence options. * Educate faculty and staff about behavioral indicators, student norms, and cultural attitudes related to high-risk or illegal alcohol and other drug use. * Encourage faculty to engage in a higher level of contact with students. * Publicize pro-health messages through campus and community media channels. Limiting Availability and Access * Work with local law enforcement to stay current with trends related to alcohol and other drug use on campus. * Ban or restrict alcohol on campus. * Prohibit alcohol use in public places. * Prohibit delivery or use of kegs or other common containers on campus. * Require alcohol servers to be registered and trained. * Disseminate guidelines for off-campus parties. * Regulate the number and concentration of alcohol outlets near campus. * Advocate a raise in the cost of beer and liquor licenses. * Promote a limit to the hours of alcohol sales. * Advocate a reduction in the container size of alcoholic beverages. * Encourage limitations regarding quantity per sale of alcohol. * Promote required keg registration. * Encourage an increase in state alcohol taxes. Limiting Marketing and Promotion of Alcohol * Restrict alcohol advertising in sports stadiums and on athletics publications. * Reduce marketing and promotion targeted at athletes. Work with local bar owners to limit such marketing. Enforcing Campus Policy and State and Local Laws * Communicate campus alcohol and other drug policies clearly and frequently to the community, including possible consequences for violations. * Enforce policies against vandalism, and make students aware of the costs associated with property damage.19 * Require registration of on-campus functions. * Use undercover operations at campus pubs and on-campus functions. * Enforce ID checks at on-campus functions. * Advocate enforcement of ID checks at off-campus bars and liquor stores. * Utilize targeted patrols to observe on-campus and off-campus parties. * Increase disciplinary sanctions for violation of campus alcohol and other drug policies. * Increase criminal prosecution of students for alcohol-related offenses. * Enforce driver's license penalties for minors violating alcohol laws. * Educate sellers/servers about potential legal liability. * Enforce penalties for sale of liquor to minors. * Enforce laws against buying alcohol for minors. * Enforce penalties for possessing fake IDs. * Use undercover operations at retail alcohol outlets. * Advocate a stringent enforcement of DUI laws. * Implement roadblocks. * Establish dramshop laws that apply legal action for serving intoxicated drinkers or minors. Each college will need to assess the level and extent of both high-risk drinking and secondary effects so that plans can be tailored to meet the institution's particular needs. Surveying students about their behavior and tracking incidents of violence or property damage on campus are assessment methods already in place at many institutions. For instance, after creating a "three strikes and you're out" policy for violations on and off campus, the University of Delaware could document a major reduction in secondary effects by surveying students, tracking emergency room visits from students, and keeping tab on vandalism costs.20 Daniel Ari Kapner is a writer/researcher at the Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention. References 1. American College Health Association. American College Health Association ? National College Health Assessment (ACHA-NCHA) Web Summary. Updated August 2007. Available at http://www.acha-ncha.org/data_highlights.html. 2007. 2. Wechsler, H.; Eun Lee, J.; Kuo, M.; Seibring M.; Nelson, T. B.; and Lee, H. "Trends in College Binge Drinking During a Period of Increased Prevention Efforts: Findings from 4 Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Surveys: 1993-2001." Journal of American College Health 50: 203-217, 2002. 3. Task Force of the National Advisory Council on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges (Washington, D.C.: National Institutes of Health, 2002). 4. Hingson, R.; Heeren, T.; Winter, M.; and Wechsler, H. "Magnitude of Alcohol- Related Mortality and Morbidity Among U.S. College Students Ages 18-24: Changes from 1998 to 2001." Annual Review of Public Health 26: 259-79, 2005. 5. Fisher, B. S.; Cullen, F. T.; and Turner, M. G. Sexual Victimization of College Women: Findings from Two National-Level Studies (Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice and Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2000). 6. Frintner, M. P., and Rubinson, L. "Acquaintance Rape: The Influence of Alcohol, Fraternity Membership, and Sports Team Membership." Journal of Sex Education and Therapy 19(4): 272-284, 1993. 7. Roark, M. L. "Conceptualizing Campus Violence: Definitions, Underlying Factors, and Effects." Journal of College Student Psychotherapy 8(1/2): 1-27, 1993. 8. Palmer, C. J. "Violence and Other Forms of Victimization in Residence Halls: Perspectives of Resident Assistants." Journal of College Student Development 37(3): 268-278, 1996. 9. The Silver Gate Group. Rites of Spring: Exploring Strategies for System Change (A White Paper Prepared for Drugs Don't Work! The Governor's Prevention Partnership, 2000. www.higheredcenter.org/pubs/rites.html). 10. O'Toole, T. "'Celebratory Riots' Creating Crisis on Campus," USA Today, 9 April 2002. 11. Strauss, V. "College Towns, School Officials Seek End to Post-Game Rioting; String of Disturbances Part of Growing Trend, Observers Say," Washington Post, 4 April 2001. 12. Axtman, K. "Colleges Struggle to Stem Rioting after Games," Christian Science Monitor, 29 November 2002. 13. White, J. "JMU President Seeks Answers to Riot," Washington Post, 29 August 2000. 14. Zimmerman, R. "Alcohol and Student Disruptions on Campus." Catalyst 5(1): 6-7, 1999. 15. For more information about violence prevention on campus, see the Higher Education Center's Web site at www.higheredcenter.org/violence/. 16. Wechsler, H.; Eun Lee, J.; Hall, J.; Wagenaar A.C.; and Lee H. "Secondhand Effects of Student Alcohol Use Reported by Neighbors of Colleges: The Role of Alcohol Outlets." Social Sciences & Medicine 55: 425-435, 2002. 17. DeJong, W. "The Role of Mass Media Campaigns in Reducing High-Risk Drinking Among College Students." Journal of Studies on Alcohol, supplement no. 14: 182-192, 2002. 18. For more information about environmental strategies for alcohol and other drug prevention, see the Higher Education Center's publication Environmental Management: A Comprehensive Strategy for Reducing Alcohol and Other Drug Use on College Campuses. 19. Epstein, J., and Finn, P. Preventing Alcohol-Related Problems on Campus: Vandalism (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Prevention, 1999). 20. Thomas, B. "Drinking Survey Indicates Change in Campus Climate," University of Delaware Update: A University Community Newspaper, 3 December 1998. Resources Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools (OSDFS) U.S. Department of Education http://www.ed.gov/osdfs; 202-245-7896 OSDFS supports efforts to create safe schools, respond to crises, prevent alcohol and other drug abuse, ensure the health and well-being of students, and teach students good character and citizenship. The agency provides financial assistance for drug abuse and violence prevention programs and activities that promote the health and well-being of students in elementary and secondary schools and institutions of higher education. The U.S. Department of Education's Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention http://www.higheredcenter.org; 1-800-676-1730; TDD Relay-friendly, Dial 711 The Higher Education Center offers an integrated array of services to help campuses and communities come together to identify problems; assess needs; and plan, implement, and evaluate alcohol and other drug abuse and violence prevention programs. Services include training; technical assistance; publications; support for the Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues; and evaluation activities. The Higher Education Center's publications are free and can be downloaded from its Web site. Other Organizations National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information (NCADI) http://www.ncadi.samhsa.gov; 1-800-729-6686 NCADI is the information service of the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP), Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NCADI is the world's largest resource clearinghouse for current information and materials concerning substance abuse. NCADI distributes publications and other materials on substance abuse from various federal government agencies (e.g., study reports, surveys, guides, videocassettes), many of which are free of charge. NCADI offers resources on illicit drugs, alcohol and alcoholism, and subpopulations in the United States. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) http://www.niaaa.nih.gov; 301-443-9304 The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) published A Call to Action: Changing the Culture of Drinking at U.S. Colleges, a groundbreaking report on the consequences of drinking at colleges and universities and effective strategies for prevention. The NIAAA supports and conducts biomedical and behavioral research on the causes, consequences, treatment and prevention of alcoholism and alcohol-related problems. NIAAA also offers a Web site on college drinking prevention, found at www.collegedrinkingprevention.gov. The Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues http://www.thenetwork.ws; see Web site for telephone contacts by region The Network Addressing Collegiate Alcohol and Other Drug Issues (Network) is a national consortium of colleges and universities formed to promote healthy campus environments by addressing issues related to alcohol and other drugs. Developed in 1987 by the U.S. Department of Education, the Network comprises member institutions that voluntarily agree to work toward a set of standards aimed at reducing AOD problems at colleges and universities. It has more than 1,600 members nationwide. Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation Center for Enforcing Underage Drinking Laws http://www.udetc.org; 877-335-1287 The Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation (PIRE) aims to promote, undertake, and evaluate activities, studies, and programs that improve individual and public health, welfare, and safety. PIRE's Center for Enforcing Underage Drinking Laws provides science-based, practical, and effective training and technical assistance to states and communities involved in enforcing underage alcohol access and use laws. The center achieves this goal by providing technical assistance, trainings, and publications that cover topics such as policy development, police operations and enforcement, media advocacy, and leadership training. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) funds the center. For additional information The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and Violence Prevention Education Development Center, Inc. 55 Chapel Street Newton, Massachusetts 02458-1060 http://www.higheredcenter.org 1-800-676-1730; TDD Relay-friendly, Dial 711 Fax: 617-928-1537 HigherEdCtr@edc.org Funded by the U.S. Department of Education August 2008 This publication was funded by the Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools at the U.S. Department of Education under contract number ED-04-CO-0137 with Education Development Center, Inc. The contracting officer's representative was Richard Lucey, Jr. The content of this publication does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Department of Education, nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the U.S. government. This publication also contains hyperlinks and URLs for information created and maintained by private organizations. This information is provided for the reader's convenience. The U.S. Department of Education is not responsible for controlling or guaranteeing the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of this outside information. Further, the inclusion of information or a hyperlink or URL does not reflect the importance of the organization, nor is it intended to endorse any views expressed, or products or services offered. Published 1996: revised February 2003; August 2003; latest update August 2008.